Final Report

Being alone can be a negative or positive experience. While health risks associated with loneliness and social isolation have been widely reported, less is known about the health benefits associated with solitary experiences which may involve positive emotions, spiritual or mental renewal. The current research aims to delineate solitary and loneliness experiences among older adults in the context of eating, working, physical and recreational activity participation, and examine the health correlates between preference for solitude and loneliness experiences. Effectiveness of health messaging relating to solitary and social activities were also investigated.

Two hundred and three older Singaporeans were randomly sampled and recruited to complete a cross-sectional survey assessing their preference for solitude and loneliness experiences and they reported the amount of time they spent alone and with family and friends for activities such as eating, working, and physical and recreational activities. In addition, the participants reported whether they have any medical conditions and mental disorders, their satisfaction with life and quality of life. Following which, the participants were randomised into one of four experimental conditions to determine which method of health messaging aimed to promote solitary and social activities is most effective. The participants rated the health promotional advertisement for its affective quality, meaningfulness, and persuasiveness. Multivariate and regression analyses were conducted to examine the correlations between the preference for solitude and loneliness experiences, the health correlates (i.e., medical conditions, mental disorders), and the effectiveness of health messaging across the experimental conditions.

How do solitude and loneliness differ?

The findings highlight the complex interplay between sociodemographic characteristics, social networks, emotional experiences, and personality traits in shaping preferences for solitude and experiences of loneliness among older adults. Key insights include:

1. Sociodemographic Factors: Ethnicity, marital status, living arrangements, and the presence of live-in domestic workers significantly influence preferences for solitude and experiences of loneliness. Notably, married individuals and those with more children tend to experience less loneliness. It is also noteworthy that while those who were never married and divorced preferred solitude more than those who were married, only those divorced felt lonelier. In addition, we found that those who lived alone had greater preference for solitude compared to those living with other people, they did not feel lonelier.

2. Social Networks: Increased interactions and frequent social engagements with family and friends are crucial in reducing both solitude and loneliness, underscoring the importance of strong social connections especially in familial relationships.

3. Emotional Experiences: Positive emotional experiences are inversely related to solitude and loneliness, while negative experiences exacerbate feelings of loneliness but not solitude, highlighting the role of emotional well-being.

4. Personality Traits: Extraversion is associated with lower levels of solitude and loneliness, whereas neuroticism correlates with higher loneliness, indicating that personality significantly impacts social preferences and emotional states.

5. Activity Participation: While there are no clear distinctions between solitary and social activities, both are perceived as beneficial to well-being, suggesting that a balance of both types of activities is essential for overall happiness and health.

These findings emphasize the multifaceted nature of solitude and loneliness, suggesting that tailored interventions considering these diverse factors could effectively enhance the well-being of older adults.

How do solitude and loneliness affect health?

The findings indicate that loneliness has an effect on health in terms of poorer outcomes such as having more medical conditions, lower quality of life, depressive symptoms and negative emotions, preference for solitude is related to lower positive emotions only. The Solitaires, who were those most socially isolated in terms of engagement in weekday and weekend activities, tend to have poor health such as having more medical conditions and poorer quality of life compared to those who are more sociable.

Health promotional advertisement

We did not observe any significant differences across the four advertisements portraying the central older adult in solitude or social situation and whether there is a choice for the activity. However, qualitative findings suggest that the posters are motivating and related to their active lifestyles although the participants mentioned that the characters can be featured more inclusively in terms of mobility and exercise preferences.

The present findings provide insights on the qualitative differences between solitude and loneliness experience among older adults and their health outcomes. Given that preference for solitude and loneliness share some similar negative correlates, we infer that a preference for solitude may entail loneliness experiences. We conclude that in general, a preference for solitude is a mental state or an intentional decision about being alone which may not entail specific positive or negative psychological and health correlates. On the other hand, loneliness experiences involve negative psychological perceptions and poorer health which may stem from unfavourable life events such as divorce, intrapersonal factors like personality or extrapersonal factors which lead to social isolation. The research findings can inform policymakers, and healthcare and social care professionals in terms of the life factors (e.g., marital status) and activities (e.g., physical and recreational activities) that could support and promote positive solitude experiences and lower loneliness, potentially leading to better health among older adults.